Ikhwan A Safa
(983 C.E.) Group of Muslim
Scientist
Brethren of Purity
Arabic manuscript illumination from the 12th century CE
showing the Brethren of Purity.maqamat al hariri
The Brethren of Purity (Arabic: اخوانالصفا ikhwãn al-safã; also The Brethren of Sincerity) were
a secret society[1] of Muslim philosophersin Basra, Iraq, in the 8th century CE.
The structure of this mysterious organization and the
identities of its members have never been clear.[2][3] Their esoteric teachings and philosophy
are expounded in an epistolary style in the Encyclopedia of the
Brethren of Purity (Rasa'il Ikhwan
al-safa'), a giant compendium of 52 epistles that would greatly influence
later encyclopedias. A good deal of Muslim and Western scholarship has been
spent on just pinning down the identities of the Brethren and the century in
which they were active.
Name
The Arabic phrase Ikhwan
al-Safa (short for, among
many possible transcriptions, Ikhwān aṣ-Ṣafāʾ wa Khullān al-Wafā wa Ahl al-Ḥamd wa abnāʾ al-Majd,[4] meaning "Brethren of
Purity, Loyal Friends, People worthy of praise and Sons of Glory") can be
translated as either the "Brethren of Purity" or the "Brethren
of Sincerity"; various scholars such as Ian Netton prefer "of
Purity" because of the group's ascetic impulses towards purity and
salvation.
A suggestion made by Goldziher, and later written about by Philip K. Hitti in his History of Arabs, is that the name is
taken from a story in Kalilah wa-Dimnah, in which a group of
animals, by acting as faithful friends (ikhwan al-safa), escape the
snares of the hunter. The story concerns a ring-dove and its companions who
get entangled in the net of a hunter seeking birds. Together, they leave
themselves and the ensnaring net to a nearby rat, who is gracious enough to gnaw the birds free of the net;
impressed by the rat's altruistic deed, a crow becomes the rat's friend.
Soon a tortoise and gazelle also join the company of
animals. After some time, the gazelle is trapped by another net; with the aid
of the others and the good rat, the gazelle is soon freed, but the tortoise
fails to leave swiftly enough and is himself captured by the hunter. In the
final turn of events, the gazelle repays the tortoise by serving as a decoy and
distracting the hunter while the rat and the others free the tortoise. After
this, the animals are designated as the "Ikwhan al-Safa".
This story is mentioned as an exemplum when the Brethren speak
of mutual aid in one rasa'il,
a crucial part of their system of ethics that has been summarized thus:
In this Brotherhood, self is forgotten; all act by the
help of each, all rely upon each for succour and advice, and if a Brother sees
it will be good for another that he should sacrifice his life for him, he
willingly gives it.[5]
Meetings[edit]
The Brethren regularly met on a fixed schedule. The
meetings apparently took place on three evenings of each month: once near the
beginning, in which speeches were given, another towards the middle, apparently
concerning astronomy and astrology, and the third between the end of the month
and the 25th of that month; during the third one, they recited hymns with philosophical
content.[6] During their meetings and
possibly also during the three feasts they held, on the dates of the sun's
entry into the Zodiac signs "Ram, Cancer, and Balance"), besides the
usual lectures and discussions, they would engage in some manner of liturgy reminiscent of the Harranians.[7]
Ranks[edit]
Hierarchy was a major theme in
their Encyclopedia, and unsurprisingly, the Brethren loosely divided themselves
up into four ranks by age; the age guidelines would not have been firm, as for
example, such an exemplar of the fourth rank as Jesus would have been too young
if the age guidelines were absolute and fixed. Compare the similar division of
the Encyclopedia into four sections and the Jabirite symbolism of 4. The ranks
were:
1.
The "Craftsmen" – a craftsman had to be at least 15
years of age; their honorific was the "pious and compassionate" (al-abrār
wa 'l-ruhamā).
2.
The "Political Leaders" – a political leader had to be
at least 30 years of age; their honorific was the "good and
excellent" (al-akhyār wa 'l-fudalā)
3.
The "Kings" – a king had to be at least 40 years of
age; their honorific was the "excellent and noble" (al-fudalā'
al-kirām)
4.
The "Prophets and Philosophers" – the most aspired-to,
the final and highest rank of the Brethren; to become a Prophet or Philosopher
a man had to be at least 50 years old; their honorific compared them to historical
luminaries such as Jesus, Socrates, or Muhammad who were also classified as
Kings; this rank was the "angelic rank" (al-martabat al-malakiyya).[8]
Identities[edit]
There have been a number of theories as to the authors of
the Brethren. Though some members of the Ikhwan are known, it is not easy to
work out exactly who, or how many, were part of this group of writers. The
members referred to themselves as "sleepers in the cave" (Rasail 4th,
p. 18); a hidden intellectual presence. In one passage they give as their
reason for hiding their secrets from the people, not as fear of earthly
violence, but as desire to protect their God-given gifts from the world (Rasail
4th, p. 166). Yet they were well aware that their esoteric teachings might
provoke unrest, and the various calamities suffered by the successors of the
Prophet may have seemed good reason to remain hidden.
Since style of the text is plain, and there are numerous
ambiguities, due to language and vocabulary, often of Persian origin, it is believed
the authors were of Persian descent and plausibly
based in Basra.[9]
Ismaili theories on the
Ikhwan[edit]
Among the Isma'ili groups and missionaries
who favored the Encyclopedia,
authorship was sometimes ascribed to one or another "Hidden Imam";
this theory is recounted in Ibn al-Qifti's biographical compendium of
philosophers and doctors, the "Chronicle of the Learned" (Ahkbār
al-Hukamā or Tabaqāt-al-Hukamā).[10][11][12]
Some modern scholars have argued for an Ismaili origin to
the writings. Ian Richard Netton writes in "Muslim Neoplatonists"
(London, 1982, p. 80) that: "The Ikhwan's concepts of exegesis of
both Quran and Islamic tradition were tinged with the esoterism of the
Ismailis." Whilst according to Yves Marquet, "It seems indisputable
that the Epistles represent the state of Ismaili doctrine at the time of their
compositions" (vide, "Encyclopaedia of Islam", 1960,
p. 1071) Bernard Lewis in "The Origins of Ismailism" (London,
1940, p. 44) was more cautious than Fyzee, ranking the Epistles among
books which, though "closely related to Ismailism" may not actually
have been Ismaili, despite their batini inspiration. Ibn Qifti (d.646/1248),
reporting in the 7th/13th century in "Tarikh-i Hukama" (p. 82)
that, "Opinions differed about the authors of the Epistles. Some people
attributed to an Alid Imam, proffering various names, whereas other put forward
as author some early Mutazalite theologians."
Among the Syrian Ismailis, the earliest reference of the
Epistles and its relation with the Ismailis is given in "Kitab Fusul wa'l
Akhbar" by Nurudin bin Ahmad (d. 233/849). Another important work,
"al-Usul wa'l-Ahakam" by Abul Ma'ali Hatim bin Imran bin Zuhra (d.
498/1104), quoted by Arif Tamir in "Khams Rasa'il Ismailiyya"
(Salamia, 1956, p. 120), writes that, "These dais, and other dais
with them, collaborated in composing long Epistles, fifty-two in number, on
various branches of learning." It implies the Epistles being the product
of the joint efforts of the Ismaili dais.
Among the Yamenite traces, the earliest reference of the
Epistles is found in "Sirat-i Ibn Hawshab" by Garar bin Mansur
al-Yamen, who lived between 270/883 and 360/970, and writes, "He (Imam
Taqi Muhammad) went through many a difficulty and fear and the destruction of
his family, whose description cannot be lengthier, until he issued (ansa'a) the
Epistles and was contacted by a man called Abu Gafir from among his dais. He
charged him with the mission as was necessary and asked him to keep his
identity concealed." This source not only asserts the connection of the
Epistles with the Ismailis, but also indicates that the Imam himself was not
the sole author (sahibor mu'allif), but only the issuer or presenter
(al-munsi). It suggests that the text of the philosophical deliberations was
given a final touching by the Imam, and the approved text was delivered to Abu
Gafir to be forwarded possibly to the Ikhwan in Basra secretly. Since the
orthodox circles and the ruling power had portrayed a wrong image of Ismailism,
the names of the compilers were concealed. The prominent members of the secret
association seem to be however, Abul Hasan al-Tirmizi, Abdullah bin Mubarak,
Abdullah bin Hamdan, Abdullah bin Maymun, Sa'id bin Hussain etc. The other
Yamenite source connecting the Epistles with the Ismailis was the writing of
Sayyadna Ibrahim bin al-Hussain al-Hamidi (d. 557/1162), who wrote "Kanz
ul-Walad." After him, there followed "al-Anwar ul-Latifa" by
Sayyadna Muhammad bin Tahir (d. 584/1188), "Tanbih al-Ghafilin" by
Sayyadna Hatim bin Ibrahim Al Hamidi (d. 596/1199), "Damigh al-Batil wa
hatf ul-Munaazil" by Sayyadna Ali bin Muhammad bin al-Walid al-Anf (d.
612/1215), "Risalat al-Waheeda" by Sayyadna Hussain bin Ali al-Anf
(d. 667/1268) and "Uyun'ul-Akhbar" by Sayyadna Idris bin Hasan
Imaduddin (d. 872/1468) etc.
According to "Ikhwan as-Safa" (Rasail 21st.,
p. 166), "Know, that among us there are kings, princes, khalifs,
sultans, chiefs, ministers, administrators, tax agents, treasurers, officers,
chamberlains, notables, nobles, servants of kings and their military
supporters. Among us too there are merchants, artisans, agriculturists and
stock breeders. There are builders, landowners, the worthy and wealthy,
gentlefolk and possessors of all many virtues. We also have persons of culture,
of science, of piety and of virtue. We have orators, poets, eloquent persons,
theologians, grammarians, tellers of tales and purveyors of lore, narrators of
traditions, readers, scholars, jurists, judges, magistrates and ecstatics.
Among us too there are philosophers, sages, geometers, astronomers,
naturalists, physicians, diviners, soothsayers, casters of spells and enchantments,
interpreters of dreams, alchemists, astrologers, and many other sorts, too many
to mention."
al-Tawhīdī[edit]
Al-Qifti, however, denigrates this account and instead
turns to a comment he discovered, written by Abū Hayyān al-Tawhīdī (d. 1023)[10] in his Kitāb al-Imtā' wa'l-Mu'ānasa(written
between 983 and 985),[13] a collection of 37 seances at the court of Ibn
Sa'dān, vizier of the Buyid ruler Samsam ad-Dawla. Apparently, al-Tawhīdī
was close to a certain Zaid b. Rifa'a, praising his intellect, ability and deep
knowledge – indeed, he had dedicated his Kitāb
as-Sadiq was-Sadaqa to Zaid –
but he was disappointed that Zaid was not orthodox or consistent in his
beliefs, and that he was, as Stern puts it:
...frequenting the society of the heretical authors of the Rasa'il Ikhwan as-Safa, whose
names are also recorded as follows: Abu Sulaiman Muhammed b. Ma'shar al-Bisti
al-Maqdisi, Abu'l-Hasan 'Ali b. Harun az-Zanjani and Abu Ahmad al-Mihrajani,
and al-'Aufi. At-Tauhidi also reports in this connection the opinion expressed
by Abu Sulaiman al-Mantiqi, his master, on the Rasa'il and an argument between a certain
al-Hariri, another pupil of al-Mantiqi, and Abu Sulaiman al-Maqdisi about the
respective roles of Revelation and Philosophy.[14]
For many years, this was the only account of the authors'
identities, but al-Tawhīdī's comments were second-hand evidence and so unsatisfactory;
further, the account is incomplete, as Abu Hayyan mentions that there were
others besides these 4.[15]
This situation lasted until al-Tawhīdī's Kitāb al-Imtā' wa'l-Mu'ānasa was published in 1942.[14] This publication
substantially supported al-Qifti's work, although al-Qifti apparently toned
down the description and prominence of al-Tawhīdī's charges that the Brethren
were Batiniyya, an esoteric Ismaili
sect and thus heretics, possibly so as to not
tar his friend Zaid with the same brush.
Stern derives a further result from the published text of
the Kitāb al-Imtā 'wal-Muanasa,
pointing out that a story al-Tawhīdī ascribes to a personal meeting with Qādī
Abu'l-Hasan 'Alī b. Hārūn az-Zanjāni, the founder of the group, appears in
almost identical form in one of the epistles.[16] While neat, Stern's view
of things has been challenged by Tibawi, who points out some assumptions and
errors Stern has made, such as the relationship between the story in
al-Tawhīdī's work and the Epistles; Tibawi points out the possibility that the
story was instead taken from a third, independent and prior source.[17]
al-Tawhīdī's testimony has also been described as thus:
The Ikhwan al-Safa' remain an anonymous group of scholars,
but when Abu Hayyan al-Tawhīdī was asked about them, he identified some of
them: Abu Sulayman al-Busti (known as al-Muqaddasi), 'Ali b. Harun al-Zanjani,
Muhammad al-Nahrajuri (or al-Mihrajani), al-'Awfi, and Zayd ibn Rifa'i.[18]
The last contemporary source comes from the surviving
portions of the Kitāb Siwan
al-Hikma (c. 950) by Abu
Sulaiman al-Mantiqi (al-Tawhīdī's teacher; 912-985),[19] which was a sort of
compendium of biographies; al-Mantiqi is primarily interested in the Brethren's
literary techniques of using parables and stories, and so he says only this
little before proceeding to give some extracts of the Encyclopedia:
Abū Sulaimān al-Maqdisī: He is the author of the fifty-two
Epistles inscribed The Epistles of the Sincere Brethren; all of them are full
with Ethics and the science of... They are current among people, and are widely
read. I wish to quote here a few paragraphs in order to give an idea of the
manner of their parables, thus bringing my book to an end.[20]
al-Maqdisī was previously listed in the Basra group of
al-Tawhīdī; here Stern and Hamdani differ, with Stern quoting Mantiqi as
crediting Maqdisi with 52 epistles, but Hamdani says "By the time of
al-Manṭiqī, the Rasā'īl were almost complete (he mentions 51
tracts)."[21]
The second near-contemporary record is another comment by
Shahzúry or (Shahrazūrī) as recorded in the Tawārikh
al-Hukamā or alternatively,
the Tawárykh al-Hokamá;
specifically, it is from the Nuzhat
al-arwah, which is contained in the Tawárykh,
which states:
Abū Solaymán Mah. b. Mosh'ir b. Nasby, who is known by the
name of Moqadisy, and Abú al-Hasan b. Zahrún Ryhány, and Abú Ahmad Nahrajúry,
and al-'Aufy, and Zayd b. Rofá'ah are the philosophers who compiled the memoirs
of the Ikhwán al-cafâ, which have been recorded by Moqaddisy.[22]
Hamdani disputes the general abovegoing identifications,
pointing out that accounts differ in multiple details, such as whether Zayd was
an author or not, whether there was a principal author, and who was in the
group or not. He lays particular stress on quotes from the Encyclopedia dating
between 954 and 960 in the anonymous (Pseudo-Majriti) work Ghāyat al-Hakīm; al-Maqdisi and
al-Zanjani are known to have been active in 983, He finds it implausible they
would have written or edited "so large an encyclopedia at least
twenty-five to thirty years earlier, that is, around 343/954 to 348/960, when
they would have been very young."[21] He explains the
al-Tawhidi narrative as being motivated by contemporary politics and issues of
hereticism relating to the Qarmatians, and points out that
there is proof that Abu Hayyan has fabricated other messages and information.[23]
Since I wrote the first part of this notice I found one of
the authors of these memoirs mentioned in the following terms: 'Zayd b. Rofa,
one of the authors of the Ikhwan al safa, was extremely ignorant in tradition,
and he was a liar without shame.'"[24]
The Epistles of the Brethren of Purity[edit]
The Rasa’il
Ikhwan al-Safa’ (Epistles
of the Brethren of Purity) consist of fifty-two treatises in mathematics,
natural sciences, psychology (psychical sciences) and theology. The first part,
which is on mathematics, groups fourteen epistles that include treatises in
arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, geography, and music, along with tracts in
elementary logic, inclusive of: the Isagoge,
the Categories, De Interpretatione, the Prior Analytics and the Posterior Analytics. The second part,
which is on natural sciences, gathers seventeen epistles on matter and form,
generation and corruption, metallurgy, meteorology, a study of the essence of
nature, the classes of plants and animals, including a fable. The third part,
which is on psychology, comprises ten epistles on the psychical and
intellective sciences, dealing with the nature of the intellect and the
intelligible, the symbolism of temporal cycles, the mystical essence of love,
resurrection, causes and effects, definitions and descriptions. The fourth part
deals with theology in eleven epistles, investigating the varieties of
religious sects, the virtue of the companionship of the Brethren of Purity, the
properties of genuine belief, the nature of the Divine Law, the species of
politics, and the essence of magic.[25]
They define a perfect
man in their Rasa'il as "of East Persian derivation,
of Arabic faith, of Iraqi, that is Babylonian, in education, Hebrew in
astuteness, a disciple of Christ in conduct, as pious as a Syrian monk, a Greek
in natural sciences, an Indian in the interpretation of mysteries and, above
all a Sufi or a mystic in his whole spiritual outlook". There are debates
on using this description and other materials of Rasa'il that could help with determination of
the identity, affiliation (with Ismaili, Sufism, ...), and other
characteristics of Ikhwan
al-Safa.[26]
The Rasa’il
Ikhwan al-Safa’ are available
in print through a variety of Arabic editions, starting from the version
established in Calcutta in 1812, then followed by the edition of Bombay of
1887–1889), then by the edition of Khayr al-Din al-Zirikli in 1928 in Cairo,
and the Beirut Sadir edition by Butrus Bustani in 1957 and the version set by
‘Arif Tamir in Beirut in 1995. All these editions are not critical and we do
not yet have a complete English translation of the whole Rasa’il encyclopedia.
The first complete Arabic critical edition and fully
annotated English translation of the Rasa’il
Ikhwan al-Safa’ is being
prepared for publication by a team of editors, translators and scholars as part
of a book series that is published by Oxford University Press in association with the Institute of Ismaili
Studies in London; a project currently coordinated by the series General
Editor Nader El-Bizri.[27] This series is initiated
by an introductory volume of studies edited by Nader El-Bizri, which was published by Oxford University Pressin
2008, and followed in 2009 by the voluminous Arabic critical edition and
annotated English translation with commentaries of The Case of the Animals Versus Man
Before the King of the Jinn (Epistle
22; eds. trans. L. Goodman & R. McGregor), then Epistle 5: On Music (ed. trans. O. Wright, 2010), Epistles
10-15: On Logic (ed. trans. C. Baffioni, 2010),
Epistle 52a: On Magic (eds. trans. G. de Callatay & B.
Halflants, 2011), Epistles 1-2: Arithmetic
and Geometry (ed. trans. N.
El-Bizri, 2012), the voluminous Epistles 15-21:Natural Sciences (ed. trans. C. Baffioni, 2013), and
Epistle 4: Geography (ed. trans. I Sanchez and J.
Montogomery, 2014).[28] This OUP series received
a large number of academic reviews in journals, including three review-essays
that were published in the Times
Literary Supplement.
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