Rufaida
Al-Aslamia 570-632
(also
transliterated Rufaida Al-Aslamiya)(Arabic: رفيدة
الأسلمية) was an Islamic
medical and social worker recognized as the first female Muslim nurse.[1]
Early life[
Personal Background[
Among the first people in
Madina to accept Islam, Rufaida Al-Aslamia was born into the Bani Aslam tribe
of the Khazraj tribal confederation in Medina, and initially gained fame for
her contribution with other Ansar women who welcomed Muhammad on arrival in
Medina.[2]
Rufaida Al-Aslamia is depicted
as a kind, empathetic nurse and a good organizer. With her clinical skills, she
trained other women to be nurses and to work in the area of health care. She
also worked as a social worker, helping to solve social problems associated
with the disease. In addition, she helped children in need and took care of
orphans, handicapped and the poor.[3]
Familial Ties To Medicine
Born into a family with strong
ties to the medical community, Rufaida's father, Saad Al Aslamy, was a physician
and mentor under whom Rufaida initially obtained clinical experience under.
Devoting herself to nursing and taking care of sick people, Rufaida Al-Aslamia
became an expert healer. Although not given responsibilities held solely by men
such as surgeries and amputations, Rufaida Al-Aslamia practiced her skills in
field hospitals in her tent during many battles as Muhammad used to order all
casualties to be carried to her tent so that she might treat them with medical
expertise.[3] It has also been documented that Rufaida
provided care to injured soldiers during the jihad (holy wars), as well as
providing shelter from the wind and heat of the harsh desert for the dying.[1] Placing the bulk of the biological and
physiological responsibilities of a patient on the doctor alone, nurses were
limited in their duties to providing physical comfort and emotional support.[1]
Historical Aspects of Female Nursing In Saudi Arabia
Pre-Islamic and Islamic Era (570–632 AD)[
Typically presented within the
context of Mohammed, the historical development of female nursing in Saudi
Arabia from the Islamic Period to the modern times boats a tumultuous history
laden with cultural barriers and public pressures.[1] Though very sparse documentation exists
pertaining to the history of nursing in the Pre-Islamic period, a proper
understanding of societal and religious paradigms during the reign of Mohammed
lends significant insight into the roles and expectation of nurses in
antiquity. In marked contrast to the pervading Christian interpretation of
disease as a divine punishment for man, Muslim's place an extremely high value
on the ritual cleansing of the body, daily prayer schedules, and strict dietary
regiments.[4] An era in history defined by a number of
holy wars, medicinal treatment during the times of Muhammad was largely performed solely by doctors,
who would personally visit the patient to diagnose abnormalities and provide
medications to those who were in need.Placing the bulk of the biological and
physiological responsibilities of a patient on the doctor alone, nurses were
limited in their duties to providing physical comfort and emotional support.[1]
Front
door of ancient hospital of Salé in Morocco designed by Islamic architects and
managed by ancient Islamic physicians
Post-Prophetic to Middle Ages Era (632–1500 AD)[
With the diminishing intensity
of holy wars and mass civil unrest that defined the climate of Islamic culture
during the reign of Muhammad, advancements in technology and architecture
resulted in the construction of many new hospitals and methods for treating the
sick. Though nurses in this period of time were still relegated to rudimentary
and noninvasive duties like serving food to patients and administering
medicinal liquids,[1] religious and social norms of the times
necessitated the segregation of hospital wards based on gender, with males
treating males and females treating females.[5] While there has been some relaxation of
segregation in contemporary times, the values of many traditional Islamic
people are for hospitals and their policies to reflect these past segregational
practices.[1]
Revolutions In Nursing Development[
Rufaida Al-Aslamia's Emergence As Nursing Leader[
Though still highly limited in
the invasiveness of their work, a shift in widely accepted cultural
expectoration's regarding a woman's role in the hospital provided many the
opportunity to emerge as leaders in a field previously dominated solely by men.
A charismatic and capable leader, published records testify that Rufaida
Al-Aslamia, who practiced at the time Mohammed, was the first Muslim nurse.[6]While there
is slight controversy in who is "technically" the first nurse in
history, Middle Eastern countries attribute the status of the first ever nurse
to Rufaida, a Muslim nurse.[7]
Acute Care Origins[edit]
Rufaida Al-Aslamia implemented
her clinical skills and medical experience into developing the first ever
documented mobile care units that were able to meet the medical needs of the
community.[8] The scope of the majority of her work in
her organized medical command units consisted primarily in hygiene and
stabilizing patients prior to further and more invasive medical procedures.
Throughout the duration of numerous brutal religious wars under Mohammad,
Rufaida Al-Aslamia led groups of volunteer nurses who went to the battlefield
and treated the casualties. She participated in the battles of Badr, Uhud,
Khandaq, Khaibar, and others.[2]
The
Mosque at Salaman, location of the Battle of The Trench where Al-Aslami treated
injured
During times of peace, Rufaida
Al-Aslamia continued her involvement with humanitarian efforts by providing
assistance to Muslims who were in need.[2]
Legacy[
Rufaidah had trained a group of
women companions as nurses. When Muhammad's army was getting ready to go to the
battle of Khaibar, Rufaidah and the group of volunteer nurses went to Muhammad.
They asked him for permission "O Messenger of Allah, we want to go out
with you to the battle and treat the injured and help Muslims as much as we
can". Muhammad gave them permission to go. The nurse volunteers did such a
good job that Muhammad assigned a share of the booty to Rufaidah. Her share was
equivalent to that of soldiers who had actually fought. This was in recognition
of her medical and nursing work.[2]
Rufaida Al-Aslamia Prize In Nursing[
Each year the Royal College of Surgeons in
Ireland at the University of Bahrain awards one student the coveted and
prestigious Rufaida Al-Aslamia Prize in Nursing. The award winner determined by
a panel of senior clinical medical staff members, the Rufaida Al-Aslamia Prize
in Nursing is given to the student who consistently excels in delivering superb
nursing care to patients.[9]
While
several studies have investigated the contribution of Muslim women in various
fields of the classical civilisation of Islam, such as in hadith transmission, jurisprudence (fiqh), literature, and education, until now few
sources mention the role of women in the development of science, technology,
and medicine in the Islamic tradition.
In
scholarship, there are isolated and scattered references to the famous women
who had a role in advancing science and who established charitable, educational
and religious institutions. Some examples are Zubayda bint Ja'far al-Mansur who
pioneered a most ambitious project of digging wells and building service
stations all along the pilgrimage route from Baghdad to Mecca, Sutayta who was
a mathematician and an expert witness in the courts, Dhayfa Khatun who excelled
in management and statesmanship, Fatima al-Fehri who founded the Qarawiyin
mosque in Fez, Morocco, which became the first university in the world, and the
engineer Al-'Ijlia who made astrolabes in Aleppo.
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In
view of the scant information on such women and the growing importance of the
subject of gender and women in society, this report presents what is currently
known about their lives and works. Our aim is twofold: to present the available
information and to initiate a process of investigation to unearth what could be
a most significant find about the roles played by hundreds of women in various
fields and in the different periods of Islamic history.
Over
thousands of years, many women have left a mark on their societies, changing
the course of history at times and influencing small but significant spheres of
life at others. Since ancient times, women have excelled in the areas of
poetry, literature, medicine, philosophy and mathematics. A famous example is
Hypatia (ca. 370-415), a philosopher, mathematician, astronomer, and teacher
who lived in Alexandria, in Hellenistic Egypt, and who participated in that
city's educational community [1].
In
the same vein, it is interesting to note the Islamic view of Cleopatra of Egypt
(b. 69 BCE). Arabic sources referred to her as a strong and able monarch who
was very protective of Egypt. These sources focused on her talents but made no
reference to her morals or seductive power. They focused instead on her
learning and talents in management. This Arabic image of Cleopatra is in direct
contrast to that presented by the Greco-Roman sources which presented her as a
hedonist and seductive woman [2].
From
the early years of Islam, women had crucial roles in their society. They
contributed substantially to the prominence of Islamic civilization. For
example, Aisha bint Abu Bakr, wife of the Prophet Muhammad, had special skills
in administration. She became a scholar in hadith, jurisprudence, an educator,
and an orator [3]. There are also many references which point to
Muslim women who excelled in areas such as medicine, literature, and jurisprudence.
This long tradition found its counterpart in modern times. For example, in a
more recent and unusual role, Sabiha Gökçen (1913-2001) was the first female
combat pilot in the world. She was appointed as chief trainer at the Turkish
Aviation Institution [4].
In
contrast, we find little information on Muslim women's contributions in the
classical books of history. New light might arise from the study of not yet
edited manuscripts. There are about 5 million manuscripts in archives around
the world. Only about 50,000 of them are edited and most of these are not about
science [5]. This points to the challenging task lying
ahead for researchers into the subject.
However,
this traditional tendency is changing in recent scholarship. Some recent works
endeavour to rehabilitate the role of women in Islamic history. Two examples of
such works are presented below.
3.1. The Muhaddithat project
For
several years, Dr Mohammed Akram Nadwi conducted a long term and large scale
project to unearth the biographies of thousands of women who participated in
the hadith tradition throughout Islamic history. In Al-Muhaddithat:
The Women Scholars in Islam [6], Dr Nadwi summarized his 40-volume biographical
dictionary (in Arabic) of the Muslim women who studied and taught hadith. Even
in this short text, he demonstrates the central role women had in preserving
the Prophet's teaching, which remains the master-guide to understanding the
Qur'an as rules and norms for life. Within the bounds of modesty in dress and
manners, women routinely attended and gave classes in the major mosques and
madrasas, travelled intensively for ‘the knowledge', transmitted and critiqued
hadith, issued fatwas, and so on. Some of the most renowned male scholars have
depended on, and praised, the scholarship of their female teachers. The women
scholars enjoyed considerable public authority in society, not as the
exception, but as the norm.
The
huge body of information reviewed in Al-Muhaddithat is essential to understanding the role of women
in Islamic society, their past achievement and future potential. Hitherto it
has been so dispersed as to be ‘hidden'. The information in Dr Nadwi's
dictionary will greatly facilitate further study, contextualization and
analysis [7].
Expanding
on her work, Islam: The Empowering of Women, Aisha Abdurrahman Bewley published Muslim Women: A
Biographical Dictionary.
This most timely work in dictionary form is a comprehensive reference source of
Muslim women throughout Islamic history from the first century AH to roughly
the middle of the 13th century AH. A perusal of the entries shows that Muslim
women have been successful, for example, as scholars and businesswomen as well
as fulfilling their roles as wives and mothers for the past fourteen centuries [8].
The
author wrote that her book originally came about as a response to frequent
requests to provide some sources about women scholars:
"When
I went through my biographical references, I was surprised by the number of
references to women, and the great number of women represented in all areas of
life, from scholars to rulers, whether regents or women who ruled in their own
right, or women who wielded substantial political influence. This led to the
decision to compile a larger source of reference of Muslim women, and, given
modern views of women in Islam, it gives us a surprising picture of just how
active women have been in the history of Islam from the very beginning up until
the present time.
"The
dictionary covers the period from the time of the Prophet to roughly the middle
of the 13th-19th century. (…) As we can
see by a perusal of the entries, the role of Muslim women was by no means
confined to house and home. They were active in many fields. This is not a
question of either/or. It is a question of many roles, all intermeshed and
interlocking, rather than separate categories. A business woman is still a
mother and a scholar is still a wife. Women simply learn to juggle things more,
but that is something women are very good at doing, as can be seen by the entries.
The
entries are compiled from a number of sources. Many of the biographical
collections devote a section to women, like volume eight of the Tabaqat of Ibn Sa'd and al-Sakhawi's Kitab an-Nisa'. Sometimes references are found within
biographies of other references. A number of notable scholars mention their
teachers, who included a number of women. Ibn Hajar studied with 53 women,
as-Sakhawi had ijazas from 68 women, and as-Suyuti studied with 33 women – a
quarter of his shaykhs. Al-Aghani by Abu'l-Faraj al-Isbahani is the major source for singers. An
excellent modern source is A'lam an-Nisa' by ‘Umar Rida Kahhala, which consists of five volumes dealing with
notable women, and is by no means inclusive" [9].
The
eminence attained by many women in Islamic culture begins to be unveiled in
recent scholarship. The female relatives of the Caliphs and courtiers vied with
each other in the patronage and cultivation of letters. Ayesha, the daughter of
Prince Ahmed in the Andalus, excelled in rhyme and oratory; her speeches
aroused the tumultuous enthusiasm of the grave philosophers of Cordoba; and her
library was one of the finest and most complete in the kingdom.
Wallada
(known as Valada in Western scholarship), a princess of the Almohads, whose
personal charms were not inferior to her talents, was renowned for her
knowledge of poetry and rhetoric; her conversation was remarkable for its depth
and brilliancy; and, in the academic contests of Cordoba, the capital which
attracted the learned and the eloquent from every quarter of the Iberian
Peninsula, she never failed, whether in prose or in poetical composition, to
out-distance all competitors.
Al-Ghassania
and Safia, both of Seville, were also distinguished for poetical and oratorical
genius; the latter was unsurpassed for the beauty and perfection of her
calligraphy; the splendid illuminations of her manuscripts were the despair of
the most accomplished artists of the age. The literary attainments of Miriam,
the gifted daughter of Al-Faisuli, were famous throughout the Andalus, the
caustic wit and satire of her epigrams were said to have been unrivalled.
Umm
al-Sa'd was famous for her familiarity with Muslim tradition. Labana of Cordoba
was thoroughly versed in the exact sciences; her talents were equal to the
solution of the most complex geometrical and algebraic problems, and her vast
acquaintance with general literature obtained her the important employment of
private secretary to the Caliph Al-Hakam II.
In AI-Fihrist, Ibn al-Nadim names women with a varied range
of skills. Two are grammarians — a much respected branch of knowledge, related
to the use of the full range of excellence of the Arabic language. There was a
woman scholar of Arab dialects, "whose origin was among the tribes",
and another "acquainted with tribal legends and colloquialisms". A
third wrote a book entitled "Rare forms and sources of verbal nouns".
Aspiring poets, like Abu Nuwas, used to spend time with the desert tribes to
perfect their knowledge of pure Arabic. In a different field, Arwa, "a
woman known for her wise sayings", wrote a book about "sermons,
morals and wisdom".
An
Indian woman, Rasa, was the author of a book on the medical treatment of women,
listed among Indian works on medicine available in Arabic. Maryah al-Qibtiyyah,
an Egyptian woman of the first century CE, wrote on alchemy, and finds her
place among books by savants of antiquity that were studied by the scholars of
the Islamic world. One female authority on the traditions of the Prophet is
noted: Fatima bint al-Mundhir, who lived in Medina and died about 145 H/763 CE.
She was the wife of Hisham, son of ‘Urwah who gathered so many traditions from
his aunt ‘A'ishah.
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The
making of astrolabes, a branch of applied science of great status, was
practiced by one woman, Al-'Ijliyah bint al-'Ijli al-Asturlabi, who followed
her father's profession in Aleppo and was employed at the court of Sayf
al-Dawlah (333 H/944 CE-357/967), one of the powerful Hamdanid rulers in
northern Syria who guarded the frontier with the Byzantine empire in the tenth
century CE.
In
the development of the art of calligraphy, one woman at least took part. Thana'
was a slave in the household of the tutor to one of the Abbasid Caliph
Al-Mansur's sons. This tutor, Ibn Qayyuma, seems to have been a dedicated
teacher, for the young slaves in his household benefited as well as his royal
pupil. Of the two whom he sent to be trained by the leading calligraphist of
the day, Ishaq ibn Hammad, one was the girl Thana'. His pupils, says Ibn
al-Nadim, "wrote the original measured scripts never since equaled [10]."
We
now present brief information on women who excelled in medicine, mathematics,
astronomy, instrument making and patronage, as examples for future research and
further investigation.
Throughout
history and even as early as the time of Prophet Muhammad, there are examples
of Muslim women making significant contributions to the improvement of the
quality of the social and economic life of their societies. They actively
participated in management, education, religious jurisprudence, medicine and
health as they were motivated by their concern for the affairs of the people.
The Sharia (Islamic law) requires Muslims to have great concern for society in
all spheres of life. Thus, throughout Islamic history the search for scientific
knowledge was considered as an act of worship. With the arrival of Islam women
were able to practice as physicians and treat both women and men particularly
on the battlefields. However, the strict segregation between men and women
meant that women had little or no contact with men outside their immediate
family. So the healthcare of Muslim women was mainly handled by other women,
especially as it was socially improper for a man to attend a woman regarding
matters of her health. The following are some examples of some of Muslim women
who contributed to the advancement of medicine.
The
title of the first nurse of Islam is credited to Rufayda Bint Saad Al
Aslamiyya. But names of other women were recorded as nurses and practitioners
of medicine in early Islam: Nusayba Bint Kaab Al-Mazeneya, one of the Muslim
women who provided nursing services to warriors at the battle of Uhud (625 H),
Umm Sinan Al-Islami (known also as Umm Imara), who became a Muslim and asked
permission of the Prophet Muhammad to go out with the warriors to nurse the
injured and provide water to the thirsty, Umm Matawe' Al-Aslamiyya, who
volunteered to be a nurse in the army after the opening of Khaybar, Umm Waraqa
Bint Hareth, who participated in gathering the Quran and providing her nursing
services to the warriors at the battle of Badr.
5.1. Rufayda al-Aslamiyyah
Rufayda
bint Sa'ad, also known as Rufayda al-Aslamiyyah, considered the first nurse in
Islamic history, lived at the time of the Prophet Muhammad. She nursed the
wounded and dying in the wars with the Prophet Muhammed in the battle of Badr
on 13 March 624 H.
Rufayda
learnt most of her medical knowledge by assisting her father, Saad Al Aslamy,
who was a physician. Rufayda devoted herself to nursing and taking care of sick
people and she became an expert healer. She practiced her skills in field
hospitals in her tent during many battles as the Prophet used to order all
casualties to be carried to her tent so that she might treat them with her medical
expertise.
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Rufayda
is depicted as a kind, empathetic nurse and a good organizer. With her clinical
skills, she trained other women to be nurses and to work in the area of health
care. She also worked as a social worker, helping to solve social problems
associated with disease. In addition, she helped children in need and took care
of orphans, handicapped and the poor[11].
5.2. Al-Shifa bint Abduallah
The
companion Al-Shifa bint Abduallah al Qurashiyah al-'Adawiyah had a strong
presence in early Muslim history as she was one of the wise women of that time.
She was literate at a time of illiteracy. She was involved in public
administration and skilled in medicine. Her real name was Laila, however
"al-Shifa", which means "the healing", is partly derived
from her profession as a nurse and medical practitioner. Al-Shifa used to use a
preventative treatment against ant bites and the Prophet approved of her method
and requested her to train other Muslim women [12].
5.3. Nusayba bint Harith al-Ansari
Nusayba
bint Harith al-Ansari, also called Umm ‘Atia, took care of casualties on the
battlefields and provided them with water, food and first aid. In addition, she
performed circumcisions [13].
5.4. Women surgeons in 15th-century Turkey
Between
those first names of early Islamic history other women practiced medicine and
nursery. Few of them were recorded. However, a serious investigation in books
of history, of medicine and literature writings will certainly provide precise
data about their lives and achievements.
In
the 15th century, a Turkish surgeon, Serefeddin
Sabuncuoglu (1385-1468), author of the famous manual of surgery Cerrahiyyetu'l-Haniyye, did not hesitate to illustrate the details of
obstetric and gynaecologic procedures or to depict women treating and
performing procedures on female patients. He also worked with female surgeons,
while his male colleaques in the West reported against the female healers.
Female
surgeons in Anatolia, generally performed some gynaecological procedures like
surgical managements of fleshy grows of the clitoris in the female genitalia,
imperforated female pudenda, warts and red pustules arising in the female
pudenda, perforations and eruptions of the uterus, abnormal labours, and
extractions of the abnormal foetus or placenta. Interestingly in the Cerrahiyyetu'l-Haniyye, we find illustrations in the forms of
miniatures indicating female surgeons. It can therefore be speculated that they
reflect the early recognition (15th century) of female surgeons with paediatric
neurosurgical diseases like foetal hydrocephalus and macrocephalus.
The
attitudes towards women in the history of medicine reflect the general view
that society held of women during the period. It is interesting that in the
treatise of Serefeddin Sabuncuoglu we find an open minded view of women, including
female practitioners in the complex field of surgery [14].
In
the field of mathematics, names of female scholars featured in Islamic history
such as Amat-Al-Wahid Sutaita Al-Mahamli from Baghdad and Lobana of Cordoba,
both from the 10th century. Systematic investigation, with the
methodology of history of science, will certainly yield more information on
other women scholars who practiced mathematics in Islamic history. We know of
many women who practiced fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence). Now, calculations and arithmetic were
intertwined with successoral calculations (fara'idh andmawarith), a branch of applied
mathematics devoted to performing calculatations of inheritance according to
the rules of Islamic law.
6.1. Sutayta Al-Mahāmali
Sutayta,
who lived in the second half of the 10th century, came from an
educated family from Baghdad. Her father was the judge Abu Abdallah al-Hussein,
author of several books including Kitab fi al-fiqh, Salat al-'idayn[15]. Her uncle was a Hadith scholar and her son was
the judge Abu-Hussein Mohammed bin Ahmed bin Ismail al-Mahamli who was known
for his judgements and his talents.
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Sutaita
was taught and guided by several scholars including her father. Other scholars
who taught her were Abu Hamza b. Qasim, Omar b. Abdul-'Aziz al-Hashimi, Ismail
b. Al-Abbas al-Warraq and Abdul-Alghafir b. Salamah al-Homsi. Sutayta was known
for her good reputation, morality and modesty. She was praised by historians
such as Ibn al-Jawzi, Ibn al-Khatib Baghdadi and Ibn Kathīr [16]. She died in the year 377H/987CE.
Sutayta
did not specialize in just one subject but excelled in many fields such as
Arabic literature, hadith, and jurisprudence as well as mathematics. It is said
that she was an expert in hisab (arithmetics) andfara'idh (successoral calculations), both being practical branches of
mathematics which were well developed in her time. It is said also that she invented
solutions to equations which have been cited by other mathematicians, which
denote aptitude in algebra. Although these equations were few, they
demonstrated that her skills in mathematics went beyond a simple aptitude to
perform calculations.
6.2. Labana of Cordoba
Labana
of Cordoba (Spain, ca. 10th century) was one of the few Islamic female
mathematicians known by name. She was said to be well-versed in the exact
sciences, and could solve the most complex geometrical and algebraic problems
known in her time.
Her
vast acquaintance with general literature obtained her the important employment
of private secretary to the Umayyad Caliph of Islamic Spain, al-Hakam II. [17].
In
astronomy and related fields, the historical records kept just one name, that
of Al-'Ijliya, apparently an astrolabe maker. Little information is available
about her, and we know of only one source in which she is mentioned, the famous
bio-bibliographical work Al-Fihrist of Ibn al-Nadim.
In
section VII.2 (information on mathematicians, engineers, practitioners of
arithmetic, musicians, calculators, astrologers, makers of instruments,
machines, and automata), Ibn al-Nadim presents a list of 16 names of engineers,
craftsmen and artisans of astronomical instruments and other machines.
Al-'Ijliya, of whom Ibn al-Nadim did not mention the first name, is the only
female in the list. Several of the experts thus named are from Harran, in
Northern Mesopotamia, and probably Sabians, whilst others may be Christians, as
it can be concluded from their names. At the end of the list, two entries
mentioned Al-'Ijli al-Usturlabi, pupil of Betolus, "and his daughter
Al-'Ijliya, who was with [meaning she worked in the court of] Sayf al-Dawla;
she was the pupil of Bitolus" (Al-'Ijli al-Usturlabi ghulâm Bitolus; Al-'Ijliya
ibnatuhu ma'a Sayf al-Dawla tilmidhat Bitolus) [18].
The
name of Al-'Ijli and his daughter is derived from Banu ‘Ijl, a tribe which was
part of Banu Bakr, an Arabian tribe belonging to the large Rabi'ah branch of
Adnanite tribes. Bakr's original lands were in Nejd, in central Arabia, but
most of the tribe's bedouin sections migrated northwards immediately before
Islam, and settled in the area of Al-Jazirah, on the upper Euphrates. The city
of Diyarbakir in southern Turkey takes its name from this tribe. The Banu ‘Ijl,
mostly Bedouin, located in al-Yamama and the southern borders of Mesopotamia[19].
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From
this, albeit too brief, quotation of Ibn al-Nadim, it turns out that Al-'Ijliya,
of whom Ibn al-Nadim did not specify the first name, was the daughter of an
instrument maker, and like her father, they were members of a rich tradition of
engineers and astronomical instrument makers who flourished in the 9th-10th century. Ibn al-Nadim mentioned her in a section
on "machines" but in it on astronomical instruments only. Therefore,
we do not know if Al-'Ijliya was solely expert in this field. She worked in the
court of Sayf al-Dawla in Aleppo (reigned from 944 to 967), and she was the
pupil of a certain Bitolus, who taught her the secrets of the profession. Her
father, and several scholars mentioned by Ibn al-Nadim, were apprentices to the
same master, who seems to have been a famous astrolabe-maker. We do not know
where she was born nor if she learned instrument making in Aleppo or elsewhere.
Among the few extant Islamic astrolabes, none bears her name, and as far as the
available classical sources can allow us to judge, she is the only woman
mentioned in connection with instrument making or engineering work.
Muslim
women have played a major role in promoting civilization and science in the
Islamic world. Some have built schools, mosques and hospitals. The following
are some examples of these women and their crucial impact on Islamic
civilization.
8.1. Zubayda bint Abu Ja'far al-Mansur
Zubayda
bint Abu Ja'far, the wife of Harun ar-Rashid, was the wealthiest and most
powerful woman in the world of her time. She was a noblewoman of great
generosity and munificence. She the developed many buildings in different
cities. She was known to have embarked upon a gigantic project to build service
stations with water wells all along the Pilgrimage route from Baghdad to Mecca.
The famous Zubaida water spring in the outskirts of Mecca still carries her
name. She was also a patron of the arts and poetry [20].
8.2. Fatima al-Fehri
Fatima
al-Fehri has played a great role in the civilization and culture in her
community. She migrated with her father Mohamed al-Fehri from Kiroan in Tunisia
to Fez. She grew up with her sister in an educated family and learnt Fiqh and
Hadith. Fatima inherited a considerable amount of money from her father which
she used to build a mosque for her community. Established in the year 859, the
Qarawiyin mosque had the oldest, and possibly the first university in the
world. Students traveled there from all over the world to study Islamic
studies, astronomy, languages, and sciences. Arabic numbers became known and
used in Europe through this university. This is one important example of the
role of women in the advancement of education and civilization [21].
8.3. Dhayfa Khatun
Dhayfa
Khatun, the powerful wife of the Ayyubid ruler of Aleppo al-Zahir Ghazi, was
the Queen of Aleppo for six years. She was born in Aleppo in 1186 CE. Her
father was King al-Adel, the brother of Salah al-Din Al-Ayyubi and her brother
was King al-Kamel. She was married to king al-Zahir the son of Salah al-Din.
Her son was King Abdul-Aziz. After her son's death, she became the Queen of
Aleppo as her grandson was only 7 years old. During her 6-year rule, she faced
threats from Mongols, Seljuks, Crusaders and Khuarzmein. Dhayfa was a popular
queen; she removed injustices and unfair taxes throughout Aleppo. She favored
the poor and scientists and founded many charities to support them. Dhayfa was
a prominent architectural patron. She established large endowments for the
maintenance and operation of her charitable foundations[22].
In
addition to her political and social roles, Dhayfa sponsored learning in Aleppo
where she founded two schools. The first was al-Firdaous School which
specialized in Islamic studies and Islamic law, specially the Shafi'i doctrine.
Al-Firdaous School was located close to Bab al-Makam in Aleppo and had a
teacher, an Imam and twenty scholars, according to the structure of the
educational system at that time. Its campus consisted of several buildings,
including the school, a residential hall for students and a mosque. The second
school, the Khankah School, specialized in both Sharia and other fields. It was
located in Mahalat al-Frafera. Dhayfa died in 1242 at the age 59 and was buried
in the Aleppo citadel [23].
8.4. Hürrem Sultan
Hürrem
Sultan, also called Roxelana, was born in year 1500 to an Ukrainian father. She
was enslaved during the Crimean Turks raids on Ukraine during the reign of
Yavuz Sultan Selim, and presented to the Ottoman palace. She was the most
beloved concubine of Süleyman the Magnificent and became his wife. During her
lifetime, Hürrem Sultan was concerned with charitable works and founded a
number of institutions. These include a mosque complex in Istanbul and the Haseki Külliyecomplex, which consists of a mosque, medrese,
school and imaret (public kitchen). She also built çifte hamam (double bathhouse with sections for both men and
women), two schools and a women's hospital. She also built four schools in
Mecca and a mosque in Jerusalem. Hürrem Sultan died in April 1558 and lies
buried in the graveyard of the Süleymaniye Mosque [24].
In
addition to the roles played by women in Islamic history, as surveyed in the
previous sections, we can not finish this introductory article without pointing
out the role of some Muslim women as rulers and political leaders in various
regions and phases of Islamic civilisation. We have already referred to Queen
Dhayfa Khatun and Princess Hurrem Sultan as patrons of great buildings and
institutions in the previous section. In the following, we refer to a few
outstanding women in management and governance.
9.1. Sitt al-Mulk
In
Muslim civilisation, no woman who had held power had borne the title of caliph
or imam. Caliph has been a title exclusively reserved to a minority of men.
However, although no woman ever became a caliph, as such, there have been women
who became Sultanas and Malikas (queens). Sitt al-Mulk, the Fatimid Princess in
Egypt, was one of them. Intelligent and careful enough not to violate any of
the rules and requirements that govern politics in the Islamic society, and
while she carried out virtually all the functions of caliph, she directed the
affairs of the empire quite effectively as Regent (for her nephew who was too
young to rule) for few years (1021-1023). She had the title of ‘Naib as-Sultan'
(Vice Sultan).
Sitt
al-Mulk (970–1023), was the elder sister of Caliph Al-Hakim. After the death of
her father Al-Aziz (975-996), she tried with the help of a cousin to force her
brother from the throne, and she became Regent for his son and successor
Al-Zahir. She continued to wield influence as an advisor after he came of age,
as evidenced by the very generous apanages that came her way.
After
the assumption of power, she abolished many of the strange rules that Al-Hakim
had promulgated in his reign, and worked to reduce tensions with the Byzantine
Empire over the control of Aleppo, but before negotiations could be completed
she died on 5 February 1023 at the age of fifty-two.
9.2. Shajarat al-Durr
Another
Queen bearing the title of Sultana was Shajarat al-Durr, who gained power in
Cairo in 1250 CE. In fact, she brought the Muslims a victory during the
Crusades and captured the King of France, Louis IX.
Shajarat
al-Durr (whose name means in Arabic ‘string of pearls'), bore the royal name
al-Malikah Ismat ad-Din Umm-Khalil Shajarat al-Durr. She was the widow of the
Ayyubid Sultan as-Salih Ayyub who played a crucial role after his death during
the Seventh Crusade against Egypt (1249-1250). She was regarded by Muslim
historians and chroniclers of the Mamluk time as being of Turkic origin. She
became the Sultana of Egypt on May 2, 1250, marking the end of the Ayyubid
reign and the starting of the Mamluk era. She died in Cairo in 1257.
In
the course of her life and political career, Shajarat al-Durr, played many
roles and held great influence within the court system that she inhabited. She
was a military leader, a mother, and a sultana at various points throughout her
career with great success until her fall from power in 1257. Her political
importance comes from the period in which she reigned, which included many
important events in Egyptian and Middle Eastern history. The Egyptian sultanate
shifted from the Ayyubids to the Mamluks in the 1250s. Louis IX of France led
the Sixth Crusade into Egypt, took Damietta and advanced down the Nile before
the Mamluks stopped this army at Mansura. In the midst of this hectic
environment, Shajarat al-Durr rose to pre-eminence, reestablished political
stability and held on to political power for seven years in one form or another [25].
9.3. Sultana Raziya
On
the other extremity of the Muslim world and almost in the same time as Shajarat
al-Durr, another woman held power, but this time in India. Razia (or Raziyya)
Sultana of Delhi took power in Delhi for four years (1236-1240 CE). She was the
only woman ever to sit on the throne of Delhi. Razia's ancestors were Muslims
of Turkish descent who came to India in the 11th century. Contrary to custom, her father selected her, over her
brothers, to be his successor. After her father's death, she was persuaded to
step down from the throne in favour of her stepbrother Ruknuddin, but, opposed
to his rule, the people demanded that she become Sultana in 1236.
She
established peace and order, encouraged trade, built roads, planted trees, dug
wells, supported poets, painters, and musicians, constructed schools and
libraries, appeared in public without the veil, wore tunic and headdress of a
man. State meetings were often open to the people. Yet, she made enemies when
she tried to eliminate some of the discriminations against her Hindu subjects.
Jealous
of her attention to one of her advisors, Jamal Uddin Yaqut (not of Turkish
blood), her governor, Altunia, rebelled. Razia's troops were defeated, Jamal
was killed in battle, Razia was captured and married to her conqueror in 1240.
One of her brothers claimed the throne for himself, Razia and her new husband
were defeated in battle where both died [26].
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Firishta,
a 16th-century historian of Muslim rule in India, wrote about her: "The
Princess was adorned with every qualification required in the ablest kings and
the strictest scrutinizers of her actions could find in her no fault, but that
she was a woman. In the time of her father, she entered deeply into the affairs
of government, which disposition he encouraged, finding she had a remarkable
talent in politics. He once appointed her regent (the one in control) in his
absence. When the emirs (military advisors) asked him why he appointed his
daughter to such an office in preference to so many of his sons, he replied
that he saw his sons giving themselves up to wine, women, gaming and the
worship of the wind (flattery); that therefore he thought the government too
weighty for their shoulders to bear and that Raziya, though a woman, had a
man's head and heart and was better than twenty such sons [27]."
9.4. Amina of Zaria
In
Muslim Africa, several women excelled in various fields. Among them, Queen
Amina of Zaria (1588-1589). She was the eldest daughter of Bakwa Turunku, who
founded the Zazzau Kingdom in 1536. Amina came to power between 1588 and 1589.
Amina is generally remembered for her fierce military exploits. Of special
quality is her brilliant military strategy and in particular engineering skills
in erecting great walled camps during her various campaigns. She is generally
credited with the building of the famous Zaria wall.
Amina
of Zaria, the Queen of Zazzua, a province of Nigeria now known as Zaria, was
born around 1533 during the reign of Sarkin (king) Zazzau Nohir. She was
probably his granddaughter. Zazzua was one of a number of Hausa city-states
which dominated the trans-Saharan trade after the collapse of the Songhai
empire to the west. Its wealth was due to trade of mainly leather goods, cloth,
kola, salt, horses and imported metals.
At
the age of sixteen, Amina became the heir apparent (Magajiya) to her mother,
Bakwa of Turunku, the ruling queen of Zazzua. With the title came the
responsibility for a ward in the city and daily councils with other officials.
Although her mother's reign was known for peace and prosperity, Amina also
chose to learn military skills from the warriors.
Queen
Bakwa died around 1566 and the reign of Zazzua passed to her younger brother
Karama. At this time Amina emerged as the leading warrior of Zazzua cavalry.
Her military achievements brought her great wealth and power. When Karama died
after a ten-year rule, Amina became queen of Zazzua.
She
set off on her first military expedition three months after coming to power and
continued fighting until her death. In her thirty-four year reign, she expanded
the domain of Zazzua to its largest size ever. Her main focus, however, was not
on annexation of neighbouring lands, but on forcing local rulers to accept vassal
status and permit Hausa traders safe passage.
She
is credited with popularizing the earthen city wall fortifications, which
became characteristic of Hausa city-states since then. She ordered building of
a defensive wall around each military camp that she established. Later, towns
grew within these protective walls, many of which are still in existence. They
are known as "ganuwar Amina", or Amina's walls [28]
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9.5. Ottoman women.
We
finish this section with a note on Ottoman women, a field of investigation that
began to attract the attention of scholars. In the 16th and 17th century, harems played an important role in the
government of the Ottoman Empire [29]. Unlike the common perception, the Harem was an
administrative centre of government, run by women only [30]. This is a field of research in which a
systematic investigation will be rewarded by great results.
In
addition to the specialties and social roles mentioned above, other fields knew
the contribution of Muslim women. Two examples show how much a serious
investigation will progress our knowledge of their contribution. In chemistry,
historical sources quote the name of Maryam Al-Zinyani. Some scholars suggested
that Maryam Al-Zinyani is Maryam bint Abdullah al-Hawary who died in year 758
CE in Kairouan. In addition to writing poetry, Maryam was skilled in chemistry [31].
Muslim
women participated with men in constructing Islamic culture and civilization,
excelling in poetry, literature and the arts. In addition, Muslim women have
demonstrated tangible contributions in mathematics, astronomy, medicine and in
the profession of health care. However, the study of the role of Muslim women
in the advancement of science, technology and medicine is difficult to document
as there are only scant mentions of it. New light might arise from the study of
not yet edited manuscripts. There are about 5 million manuscripts in archives
around the world. Only about 50,000 of them are edited and most of these are
not about science. Editing relevant manuscripts is indeed a strategic issue for
discovering the role of Muslim women in science and civilization.
This
work would have not been completed without the assistance of a number of
colleagues, amongst whom I particularly like to thank Prof. Mohammed Abattouy,
Dr Mehrunisha Suleman, Professor Nabila Dawood, Mohammed Kujja, Dr Suhair
Al-Qurashi, Dr Rim Turkmani, Arwa Abde-Aal, Margaret Morris and Sundoss
Al-Hassani.
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