1332-1395 Abdurrahman bin Muhammad Ibn Khaldun Al-Hadrami Al-Ishbili

Ibn Khaldun(1332-1395 C.E.

Ibn Khaldūn (/ˌɪbənxælˈduːn/ full name, Arabic: أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون الحضرمي‎, Abū Zayd ‘Abdu r-Raḥmān bin Muḥammad bin Khaldūn Al-Ḥaḍrami; May 27, 1332 – March 19, 1406) was an Arab Muslim historiographer and historian, regarded to be the founding fathers of modern sociology,^{[n 1]} historiography, demography,^{[n 1]} and economics.^{[6][n 2]}

He is best known for his book, the Muqaddimah (literally the "Introduction", known as the Prolegomena in Greek). The book influenced 17th-century Ottoman historians like Ḥajjī Khalīfa and Mustafa Naima who used the theories in the book to analyze the growth and decline of the Ottoman Empire.^[7] 19th-century European scholars also acknowledged the significance of the book and considered Ibn Khaldun as one of the greatest philosophers of the Middle Ages.^[8][9]

Biography

Ibn Khaldun's life is relatively well-documented, as he wrote an autobiography (التعريف بابن خلدون ورحلته غربا وشرقا, at-Taʻrīf bi-ibn Khaldūn wa-Riḥlatuhu Gharban wa-Sharqan^[10]) in which numerous documents regarding his life are quoted word-for-word.

Generally known as "Ibn Khaldūn" after a remote ancestor, he was born in Tunis in AD 1332 (732 A.H.) into an upper-classAndalusian family of Arab descent,^[11][12][13] the Banū Khaldūn. His family, which held many high offices in Andalusia, had emigrated to Tunisia after the fall of Seville to the Reconquista in AD 1248 . Under the Tunisian Hafsid dynasty some of his family held political office; Ibn Khaldūn's father and grandfather however withdrew from political life and joined a mystical order. His brother, Yahya Khaldun, was also a historian who wrote a book on the Abdalwadid dynasty, and who was assassinated by a rival for being the official historiographer of the court.^[14]

In his autobiography, Khaldun traces his descent back to the time of Muhammad through an Arab tribe from Yemen, specifically theHadhramaut, which came to the Iberian Peninsula in the eighth century at the beginning of the Islamic conquest. In his own words: "And our ancestry is from Hadhramaut, from the Arabs of Yemen, via Wa'il ibn Hajar, from the best of the Arabs, well-known and respected." (p. 2429, Al-Waraq's edition). However, the biographer Mohammad Enan questions his claim, suggesting that his family may have been Muladis who pretended to be of Arab origin in order to gain social status.^[15] Enan also mentions a well documented past tradition, concerning certain Berber groups, whereby they delusively "aggrandize" themselves with some Arab ancestry. The motive of such an invention was always the desire for political and societal ascendancy. Some speculate this of the Khaldun family; they elaborate that Ibn Khaldun himself was the product of the same Berber ancestry as the native majority of his birthplace. A point congenial to this posits that Ibn Khaldun's unusual written focus on, and admiration for Berbers reveals a deference towards them that is born of a vested interest in preserving them in the realm of conscious history; such is that which the true Arabs of his day would find no enthusiasm for and indeed a vested interest in suppressing. Moreover the special position that he affords Berbers in his work is fully vindicated upon comparing it with his vitriolic attitudes towards the Arab, and his relative disinterest in the state of affairs outside the Maghreb. In contrast, Muhammad Hozien chooses to believe: "The false [Berber] identity would be valid however at the time that Ibn Khaldun's ancestors left Andalusia and moved to Tunisia they did not change their claim to Arab ancestry. Even in the times when Berbers were ruling in Al-Andalus, the reigns of Almoravids and Almohads, the Ibn Khalduns did not reclaim their Berber heritage."^[16]

Education[edit]

His family's high rank enabled Ibn Khaldun to study with the best teachers in Maghreb. He received a classical Islamic education, studying the Qur'an which he memorized by heart, Arabic linguistics, the basis for an understanding of the Qur'an, hadith, sharia (law) and fiqh (jurisprudence). He received certification (ijazah) for all these subjects.^[17] Themathematician and philosopher, Al-Abili of Tlemcen, introduced him to mathematics, logic and philosophy, where he above all studied the works of Averroes, Avicenna, Razi andTusi. At the age of 17, Ibn Khaldūn lost both his parents to the Black Death, an intercontinental epidemic of the plague that hit Tunis in 1348–1349.

Following family tradition, Ibn Khaldūn strove for a political career. In the face of a tumultuous political situation in North Africa, this required a high degree of skill developing and dropping alliances prudently, to avoid falling with the short-lived regimes of the time.^{[citation needed]} Ibn Khaldūn's autobiography is the story of an adventure, in which he spends time in prison, reaches the highest offices and falls again into exile.^{[citation needed]}

Early years in Tunis, Fez, Tlemcen and Granada[edit]

Birth home of Ibn Khaldoun at Tunis

The Mosque where Ibn Khaldoun used to take his lessons

Ibn Khaldun on the 10 Tunisian dinar bill

At the age of 20, he began his political career at the Chancellery of the Tunisian ruler Ibn Tafrakin with the position of Kātib al-'Alāmah, which consisted of writing in fine calligraphy the typical introductory notes of official documents. In 1352, Abū Ziad, the Sultan of Constantine, marched on Tunis and defeated it. Ibn Khaldūn, in any case unhappy with his respected but politically meaningless position, followed his teacher Abili to Fez. Here theMarinid sultan Abū Inan Fares I appointed him as a writer of royal proclamations, which didn't prevent Ibn Khaldūn from scheming against his employer. In 1357 this brought the 25-year-old a 22-month prison sentence. Upon the death of Abū Inan in 1358, the vizier al-Hasān ibn-Umar granted him freedom and reinstated him in his rank and offices. Ibn Khaldūn then schemed against Abū Inan's successor, Abū Salem Ibrahim III, with Abū Salem's exiled uncle, Abū Salem. When Abū Salem came to power, he gave Ibn Khaldūn a ministerial position, the first position which corresponded with Ibn Khaldūn's ambitions.

The treatment Ibn Khaldun received after the fall of Abū Salem through Ibn-Amar ʻAbdullah, a friend of Ibn Khaldūn's, was not to his liking, he received no significant official position. At the same time, Amar successfully prevented Ibn Khaldūn – whose political skills he was well aware of – from allying with the Abd al-Wadids in Tlemcen. Ibn Khaldūn therefore decided to move to Granada. He could be sure of a positive welcome there, since at Fez he had helped the Sultan of Granada, the Nasrid Muhammad V, regain power from his temporary exile. In 1364 Muhammad entrusted him with a diplomatic mission to the King of Castile, Pedro the Cruel, to endorse a peace treaty. Ibn Khaldūn successfully carried out this mission, and politely declined Pedro's offer to remain at his court and have his family's Spanish possessions returned to him.

In Granada, Ibn Khaldūn quickly came into competition with Muhammad's vizier, Ibn al-Khatib, who saw the close relationship between Muhammad and Ibn Khaldūn with increasing mistrust. Ibn Khaldūn tried to shape the young Muhammad into his ideal of a wise ruler, an enterprise which Ibn al-Khatib thought foolish and a danger to peace in the country – and history proved him right. At al-Khatib's instigation, Ibn Khaldūn was eventually sent back to North Africa. Al-Khatib himself was later accused by Muhammad of having unorthodox philosophical views, and murdered, despite an attempt by Ibn Khaldūn to intercede on behalf of his old rival.

In his autobiography, Ibn Khaldūn tells us little about his conflict with Ibn al-Khatib and the reasons for his departure. The orientalistMuhsin Mahdi interprets this as showing that Ibn Khaldūn later realised that he had completely misjudged Muhammad V.

Back in Africa, the Hafsid sultan of Bougie, Abū ʻAbdallāh, (who had been his companion in prison) received him with great enthusiasm, and made Ibn Khaldūn his prime minister. During this period, Ibn Khaldūn carried out a daring mission to collect taxes among the local Berber tribes. After the death of Abū ʻAbdallāh in 1366, Ibn Khaldūn changed sides once again and allied himself with the Sultan of Tlemcen, Abū l-Abbas. A few years later he was taken prisoner by Abu Faris Abdul Aziz, who had defeated the sultan of Tlemcen and seized the throne. He then entered a monastic establishment, and occupied himself with scholastic duties, until in 1370 he was sent for to Tlemcen by the new sultan. After the death of ʻAbdu l-Azīz, he resided at Fez, enjoying the patronage and confidence of the regent.

Ibn Khaldūn's political skills, above all his good relationship with the wild Berber tribes, were in high demand among the North African rulers, whereas he himself began to tire of politics and constant switching of allegiances. In 1375, sent by Abū Hammu, the ʻAbdu l Wadid Sultan of Tlemcen, on a mission to the Dawadida Arabs tribes of Biskra. After his return to the West Ibn Khaldūn sought refuge with one of the Berber tribes, in the west of Algeria, in the town of Qalat Ibn Salama. He lived there for over three years under their protection, taking advantage of his seclusion to write the Muqaddimah "Prolegomena", the introduction to his planned history of the world. In Ibn Salama, however, he lacked the necessary texts to complete the work. As a result, in 1378, he returned to his native Tunis, which in the mean time had been conquered by Abū l-Abbas, who took Ibn Khaldūn back into his service. There he devoted himself almost exclusively to his studies and completed his history of the world. His relationship with Abū l-Abbas remained strained, as the latter questioned his loyalty. This was brought into sharp contrast after Ibn Khaldūn presented him with a copy of the completed history omitting the usual panegyric to the ruler. Under pretence of going on the Hajj to Mecca – something a Muslim ruler could not simply refuse permission for – Ibn Khaldūn was able to leave Tunis and sail toAlexandria.

Last years in Egypt[edit]

Ibn Khaldoun Statue and Square, Mohandesin, Cairo

Ibn Khaldun said of Egypt, "He who has not seen it does not know the power of Islam."^{[this quote needs a citation]} While other Islamic regions had to cope with border wars and inner strife, under the Mamluks Egypt experienced a period of economic prosperity and high culture. However, even in Egypt, where Ibn Khaldūn lived out his days, he could not stay out of politics completely. In 1384 the Egyptian Sultan, al-Malik udh-Dhahir Barquq, made him Professor of the Qamhiyyah Madrasah, and grand Qadi of the Maliki school of fiqh (one of four schools, the Maliki school was widespread primarily in West Africa). His efforts at reform encountered resistance, however, and within a year he had to resign his judgeship. A contributory factor to his decision to resign may have been the heavy personal blow that struck him in 1384, when a ship carrying his wife and children sank off the coast of Alexandria. Ibn Khaldun now decided to complete the pilgrimage to Mecca after all.

After his return in May 1388, Ibn Khaldūn concentrated more strongly on a purely educational function at various Cairo madrasas. At court he fell out of favor for a time, as during revolts against Barquq he had – apparently under duress – together with other Cairo jurists issued a Fatwa against Barquq. Later relations with Barquq returned to normal, and he was once again named the Maliki qadi. Altogether he was called six times to this high office, which for various reasons he never held long.

In 1401, under Barquq's successor, his son Faraj, Ibn Khaldūn took part in a military campaign against the Mongol conqueror Timur, who besieged Damascus. Ibn Khaldūn cast doubt upon the viability of the venture and didn't really want to leave Egypt. His doubts were vindicated, as the young and inexperienced Faraj, concerned about a revolt in Egypt, left his army to its own devices in Syria and hurried home. Ibn Khaldūn remained at the besieged city for seven weeks, being lowered over the city wall by ropes in order to negotiate with Timur, in a historic series of meetings which he reports extensively in his autobiography. Timur questioned him in detail about conditions in the lands of the Maghreb; at his request, Ibn Khaldūn even wrote a long report about it. As he recognized the intentions behind this, he did not hesitate, on his return to Egypt, to compose an equally extensive report on the history of the Tartars, together with a character study of Timur, sending these to the Merinid rulers in Fez (Maghreb).

Ibn Khaldūn spent the following five years in Cairo completing his autobiography and his history of the world and acting as teacher and judge. During this time he is alleged to have joined an underground party named Rijal Hawa Rijal. Their reform oriented ideals attracted the attention of local political authorities and the elderly Ibn Khaldun was placed under arrest. He died on 19 March 1406, one month after his sixth selection for the office of the Maliki qadi (Judge).

Works[edit]

See also: Muqaddimah and Asabiyyah

When civilization [population] increases, the available labor again increases. In turn, luxury again increases in correspondence with the increasing profit, and the customs and needs of luxury increase. Crafts are created to obtain luxury products. The value realized from them increases, and, as a result, profits are again multiplied in the town. Production there is thriving even more than before. And so it goes with the second and third increase. All the additional labor serves luxury and wealth, in contrast to the original labor that served the necessity of life.[3]

Ibn Khaldun on economic growth

Ibn Khaldūn has left behind few works other than his history of the world, Kitābu l-ʻibar. Significantly, such writings are not alluded to in his autobiography, suggesting perhaps that Ibn Khaldūn saw himself first and foremost as a historian and wanted to be known above all as the author of Kitābu l-ʻibar. From other sources we know of several other works, primarily composed during the time he spent in North Africa and Al-Andalus. His first book, Lubābu l-Muhassal, a commentary on the Islamic theology of Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, was written at the age of 19 under the supervision of his teacher al-Ābilī in Tunis. A work on Sufism, Sifā'u l-Sā'il, was composed around 1373 in Fes, Morocco. Whilst at the court of Muhammed V, Sultan of Granada, Ibn Khaldūn composed a work on logic, ʻallaqa li-l-Sultān.

The Kitābu l-ʻibār (full title: Kitābu l-ʻibar wa Diwānu l-Mubtada' wa l-Ħabar fī tarikhi l-ʻarab wa l-Barbar wa man ʻĀsarahum min Đawī Ash-Sha'n l-Akbār "Book of lessons, Record of Beginnings and Events in the history of the Arabs and Berbers and their Powerful Contemporaries"), Ibn Khaldūn's main work, was originally conceived as a history of the Berbers. Later, the focus was widened so that in its final form (including its own methodology and anthropology), to represent a so-called "universal history". It is divided into seven books, the first of which, the Muqaddimah, can be considered a separate work. Books two to five cover the history of mankind up to the time of Ibn Khaldūn. Books six and seven cover the history of the Berber peoples and the Maghreb, which remain invaluable to present-day historians, as they are based on Ibn Khaldūn's personal knowledge of the Berbers.^[18]

Businesses owned by responsible and organized merchants shall eventually surpass those owned by wealthy rulers.[3]

Ibn Khaldun on economic growth opposing the ideals ofPlatonism

Concerning the discipline of sociology, he conceived a theory of social conflict. He developed the dichotomy of sedentary life versus nomadic life as well as the concept of a "generation", and the inevitable loss of power that occurs when desert warriors conquer a city. Following a contemporary Arab scholar, Sati' al-Husri, the Muqaddimah may be read as a sociological work: six books of general sociology. Topics dealt with in this work include politics, urban life, economics, and knowledge. The work is based around Ibn Khaldun's central concept of 'asabiyyah, which has been translated as "social cohesion", "group solidarity", or "tribalism". This social cohesion arises spontaneously in tribes and other small kinship groups; it can be intensified and enlarged by a religious ideology. Ibn Khaldun's analysis looks at how this cohesion carries groups to power but contains within itself the seeds – psychological, sociological, economic, political – of the group's downfall, to be replaced by a new group, dynasty or empire bound by a stronger (or at least younger and more vigorous) cohesion. Ibn Khaldun has been cited as a racist, but his theories on the rise and fall of empires have no racial component, and this reading of his work has been claimed to be the result of mistranslations.^[19]

One should then look at the world of creation. It started out from the minerals and progressed, in an ingenious, gradual manner, to plants and animals. The last stage of minerals is connected with the first stage of plants, such as herbs and seedless plants. The last stage of plants, such as palms and vines, is connected with the first stage of animals, such as snails and shellfish which have only the power of touch. The word "connection" with regard to these created things means that the last stage of each group is fully prepared to become the first stage of the next group. The animal world then widens, its species become numerous, and, in a gradual process of creation, it finally leads to man, who is able to think and to reflect. The higher stage of man is reached from the world of the monkeys, in which both sagacity and perception are found, but which has not reached the stage of actual reflection and thinking. At this point we come to the first stage of man after (the world of monkeys). This is as far as our (physical) observation extends.[20]

Ibn Khaldun on Evolution

Perhaps the most frequently cited observation drawn from Ibn Khaldūn's work is the notion that when a society becomes a great civilization (and, presumably, the dominant culture in its region), its high point is followed by a period of decay. This means that the next cohesive group that conquers the diminished civilization is, by comparison, a group of barbarians. Once the barbarians solidify their control over the conquered society, however, they become attracted to its more refined aspects, such as literacy and arts, and either assimilate into or appropriate such cultural practices. Then, eventually, the former barbarians will be conquered by a new set of barbarians, who will repeat the process. Some contemporary readers of Khaldun have read this as an early business cycle theory, though set in the historical circumstances of the mature Islamic empire.

Ibn Khaldun outlines an early (possibly even the earliest) example of political economy. He describes the economy as being composed of value-adding processes; that is, labour and skill is added to techniques and crafts and the product is sold at a higher value. He also made the distinction between "profit" and "sustenance", in modern political economy terms, surplus and that required for the reproduction of classes respectively. He also calls for the creation of a science to explain society and goes on to outline these ideas in his major work the Muqaddimah.

Ibn Khaldun also emphasized on the Islamic Monetary System that the currency or money should have intrinsicvalue. And it should be made up of Gold and Silver i.e. Gold dinar and Silver Dirham. He also emphasized that the weight and purity of these coins should be strictly followed. As the weight of one dinar should be one mithqal i.e. equal the weight of 72 grains of barley (equals to almost 4.25 grams) and the weight of 7 dinar should be equal to weight of 10 Dirhams (which equal 7/10 of Mithqal or 2.975 grams). And according to him these coins must be used in laws concerning the charity tax (Zakat), marriage (fees), fixed legal fines, and other things.^[21]

The dirham and the dinar differ in value and weight in different regions, cities, and provinces. The religious law has had occasion to refer to these (coins) and has mentioned them in connection with many laws concerning the charity tax, marriage (fees), fixed legal fines, and other things. Therefore, the religious law must have its own (dirham and dinar) with a specific value given to them by (the religious law itself) and agreeing with the intention of (the religious law). These coins are then the ones to which the laws refer. They are different from the non-legal (coins).[22]

Ibn Khaldun on Islamic Monetary Economics

The Revelation undertook to mention them and attached many judgements to them, for example zakat, marriage, andhudud, etc., therefore within the Revelation they have to have a reality and specific measure for assessment of zakat, etc. upon which its judgements may be based rather than on the non-shari'i other coins. Know that there is consensus since the beginning of Islam and the age of the Companions and the Followers that the dirham of the shari'ah is that of which ten weigh seven mithqals weight of the dinar of gold... The weight of a mithqal of gold is seventy-two grains of barley, so that the dirham which is seven-tenths of it is fifty and two-fifths grains. All these measurements are firmly established by consensus[23]

Ibn Khaldun on Gold dinar and Silver Dirham as Money

Ibn Khaldun was an Arab historian, born in North Africa in present-day Tunisia. He is best known for his Muqaddimah (known as Prolegomenon in the West), the first volume of his book on universal history, Kitab al-Ibar. Ibn Khald?n has left behind few works other than his history of the world. The Kit?bu l-ib?r, Ibn Khald?n’s main work, was originally conceived as a history of the Berbers. Later, the focus was widened so that in its final form to represent a so-called “universal history”. It is divided into seven books, the first of which, the Muqaddimah, can be considered a separate work. Books two to five cover the history of mankind up to the time of Ibn Khald?n. Books six and seven cover the history of the Berber peoples and the Maghreb.The Muqaddimah is also held to be a foundational work for the schools of historiography, cultural history, and the philosophy of history. The Muqaddimah also laid the groundwork for the observation of the role of state, communication, propaganda and systematic bias in history. In the Muqaddimah, Ibn Khaldun warned of seven mistakes that he thought that historians regularly committed. In this criticism, he approached the past as strange and in need of interpretation. The originality of Ibn Khaldun was to claim that the cultural difference of another age must govern the evaluation of relevant historical material, to distinguish the principles according to which it might be possible to attempt the evaluation, and lastly, to feel the need for experience, in addition to rational principles, in order to assess a culture of the past. His historical method also laid the groundwork for the observation of the role of state, communication, propaganda and systematic bias in history, and he is thus considered to be the “father of historiography” or the “father of the philosophy of history”. The Muqaddimah is the earliest known work to critically examine military history. It criticizes certain accounts of historical battles that appear to be exaggerated, and takes military logistics into account when questioning the sizes of historical armies reported in earlier sources.1

Abd al-Rahman Ibn Mohammad is generally known as Ibn Khaldun

Abd al-Rahman Ibn Mohammad is generally known as Ibn Khaldun after a remote ancestor. His parents, originally Yemenite Arabs, had settled in Spain, but after the fall of Seville, had migrated to Tunisia. He was born in Tunisia in 1332 C.E., where he received his early education and where, still in his teens, he entered the service of the Egyptian ruler

Sultan Barquq.

His thirst for advanced knowledge and a better academic setting soon made him leave this service and migrate to Fez. This was followed by a long period of unrest marked by contemporary political rivalries affecting his career. This turbulent period also included a three year refuge in a small village Qalat Ibn Salama in Algeria, which provided him with the opportunity to write Muqaddimah, the first volume of his world history that won him

an immortal place among historians, sociologists and philosophers. The uncertainty of his career still continued, with Egypt becoming his final abode where he spent his last 24 years. Here he lived a life of fame and respect, marked by his appointment as the Chief Malakite Judge and lecturing at the Al-Azhar University, but envy caused his removal from his high judicial office as many as five times.

Ibn Khaldun's chief contribution lies in philosophy of history and sociology. He sought to write a world history preambled by a first volume aimed at an analysis of historical events. This volume, commonly known as Muqaddimahor 'Prolegomena', was

based on Ibn Khaldun's unique approach and original contribution and became a masterpiece in literature on philosophy of history and sociology. The chief concern of this monumental work was to identify psychological, economic, environmental and social facts that contribute to the advancement of human civilization and the currents of history. In this context, he analysed the dynamics of group relationships and showed how group-feelings, al-'Asabiyya,give rise to the ascent of a new civilisation and political power and how, later on, its diffusion into a more general civilization invites the advent of a still new 'Asabiyyain its pristine form. He identified an almost rhythmic repetition of rise and fall in human civilization, and analysed factors contributing to it. His contribution to history is marked by the fact that, unlike most earlier writers interpreting history largely in a political context, he emphasised environmental, sociological, psychological

and economic factors governing the apparent events. This revolutionised the science of history and also laid the foundation of Umraniyat (Sociology).

Apart from the Muqaddimahthat became an important independent book even during the lifetime of the author, the other volumes of his world history Kitab al-I'bar deal with the history of Arabs, contemporary Muslim rulers, contemporary European rulers, ancient history of Arabs, Jews, Greeks, Romans, Persians,

etc., Islamic History, Egyptian history and North-African history, especially that of Berbers and tribes living in the adjoining

areas. The last volume deals largely with the events of his own life and is known as Al-Tasrif. This was also written in a scientific manner and initiated a new analytical tradition in the art of writing autobiography. A book on mathematics written by him is not extant.

Ibn Khaldun's influence on the subject of history, philosophy of history, sociology, political science and education has remained paramount ever since his life. His books have been translated into many languages, both in the East and the West, and have inspired subsequent development of these sciences. For instance, Prof. Gum Ploughs and Kolosio consider Muqaddimah as superior in scholarship to Machiavelli's The Prince written a century later, as the forrner bases the diagnosis more on cultural, sociological, economic and psychological factors.

Abdurrahman bin Muhammad Ibn Khaldun Al-Hadrami Al-Ishbili  didaulat sebagai `Bapak Ekonomi & Sosiologi Islam’. Sebagai salah seorang pemikir hebat dan serba bisa sepanjang masa, buah pikirnya amat berpengaruh. Sederet pemikir Barat terkemuka, seperti Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Robert Flint, Arnold J Toynbee, Ernest Gellner, Franz Rosenthal, dan Arthur Laffermengagumi pemikirannya.

Tak heran, pemikir Arab, NJ Dawood menjulukinya sebagai negarawan, ahli hukum, sejarawan dan sekaligus sarjana. Dialah Ibnu Khaldun, penulis buku yang melegenda, Al-Muqaddimah. Ilmuwan besar yang terlahir di Tunisia pada 27 Mei 1332 atau 1 Ramadhan 732 H itu memiliki nama lengkap Waliuddin Abdurrahman bin Muhammad Ibn Khaldun Al-Hadrami Al-Ishbili. Nenek moyangnya berasal dari Hadramaut (Yaman) yang bermigrasi ke Seville (Spanyol) pada abad ke-8 M, setelah semenanjung itu ditaklukan Islam.

Setelah Spanyol direbut penguasa Kristen, keluarga besar Ibnu Khaldun hijrah ke Maroko dan kemudian menetap di Tunisia. Di kota itu, keluarga Ibnu Khaldun dihormati pihak istana dan tinggal di lahan milik dinasti Hafsiah. Sejak terlahir ke dunia, Ibnu Khaldun sudah hidup dalam komunitas kelas atas.

Ibnu Khaldun hidup pada masa peradaban Islam berada diambang degradasi dan disintegrasi. Kala itu, Khalifah Abbasiyah di ambang keruntuhan setelah penjarahan, pembakaran, dan penghancuran Baghdad dan wilayah disekitarnya oleh bangsa Mongol pada tahun 1258, sekitar tujuh puluh lima tahun sebelum kelahiran Ibnu Khaldun.

Guru pertama Ibnu Khaldun adalah ayahnya sendiri. Sejak kecil, ia sudah menghafal Alquran dan menguasai tajwid. Selain itu, dia juga menimba ilmu agama, fisika, hingga matematika dari sejumlah ulama Andalusia yang hijrah ke Tunisia. Ia selalu mendapatkan nilai yang memuaskan dalam semua bidang studi.

Studinya kemudian terhenti pada 749 H. Saat menginjak usia 17 tahun, tanah kelahirannya diserang wabah penyakit pes yang menelan ribuan korban jiwa. Akibat peristiwa yang dikenal sebagai Black Death itu, para ulama dan penguasa hijrah ke Maghrib Jauh (Maroko).

Ahmad Syafii Maarif dalam bukunya Ibn Khaldun dalam pandangan Penulis Barat dan Timur memaparkan, di usia yang masih muda, Ibnu Khaldun sudah menguasi berbagai ilmu Islam klasik seperti filsafat, tasawuf, dan metafisika. Selain menguasai ilmu politik, sejarah, ekonomi serta geografi, di bidang hukum, ia juga menganut madzhab Maliki.

Sejak muda, Ibnu Khaldun sudah terbiasa berhadapan dengan berbagai intrik politik. Pada masa itu, Afrika Utara dan Andalusia sedang diguncang peperangan. Dinasti-dinasti kecil saling bersaing memperebutkan kekuasaan, di saat umat Islam terusir dari Spanyol. Tak heran, bila dia sudah terbiasa mengamati fenomena persaingan keras, saling menjatuhkan, saling menghancurkan.

Di usianya yang ke-21, Ibnu Khaldun sudah diangkat menjadi sekretaris Sultan Al-Fadl dari Dinasti Hafs yang berkedudukan di Tunisia. Dua tahun kemudian, dia berhenti karena penguasa yang didukungnya itu kalah dalam sebuah pertempuran. Ia lalu hijrah ke Baskarah, sebuah kota di Maghrib Tengah (Aljazair).

Ia berupaya untuk bertemu dengan Sultan Abu Anam, penguasa Bani Marin dari Fez, Maroko, yang tengah berada di Maghrib Tengah. Lobinya berhasil. Ibnu Khaldun diangkat menjadi anggota majelis ilmu pengetahuan dan sekretaris sultan setahun kemudian. Ia menduduki jabatan itu selama dua kali dan sempat pula dipenjara. Ibnu Khaldun kemudian meninggalkan negeri itu setelah Wazir Umar bin Abdillah murka.

Ia kemudian terdampar di Granada pada 764 H. Sultan Bani Ahmar menyambut kedatangannya dan mempercayainya sebagai duta negar di Castilla, sebuah kerajaan Kristen yang berpusat di Seville. Tugasnya dijalankan dengan baik dan sukses. Namun tak lama kemudian, hubungannya dengan Sultan kemudian retak.

Dua tahun berselang, jabatan strategis kembali didudukinya. Penguasa Bani Hafs, Abu Abdillah Muhammad mengangkatnya menjadi perdana menteri sekaligus, khatib dan guru di Bijayah. Setahun kemudian, Bijayah jatuh ke tangan Sultan Abul Abbas Ahmad, gubernur Qasanthinah (sebuah kota di Aljazair). Ibnu Khaldun lalu hijrah ke Baskarah.

Ia kemudian berkirim surat kepada Abu Hammu, sultan Tilmisan dari Bani Abdil Wad yang isinya akan memberi dukungan. Tawaran itu disambut hangat Sultan dan kemudian memberinya jabatan penting. Iming-iming jabatan itu ditolak Ibnu Khaldun, karena akan melanjutkan studinya secara otodidak. Ia bersedia berkampanye untuk mendukung Abu Hammu. Sikap politiknya berubah, tatkala Abu Hammu diusir Sultan Abdul Aziz.

Ibnu Khaldun kemudian berpihak kepada Abdul Aziz dan tinggal di Baskarah. Tak lama kemudian, Tilmisan kembali direbut Abu Hammu. Ia lalu menyelamatkan diri ke Fez, Maroko pada 774. Saat Fez jatuh ke tangan Sultan Abul Abbas Ahmad, ia kembali pergi ke Granada buat yang kedua kalinya. Namun, penguasa Granada tak menerima kehadirannya.

Ia balik lagi ke Tilmisan. Meski telah dikhianati, namun Abu Hammu menerima kehadiran Ibnu Khaldun. Sejak saat itulah, Ibnu Khaldun memutuskan untuk tak berpolitik praktis lagi. Ibnu Khaldun lalu menyepi di Qa’lat Ibnu Salamah dan menetap di tempat itu sampai tahun 780 H. Dalam masa menyepinya itulah, Ibnu Khaldun mengarang sejumlah kitab yang monumental.

Di awali dengan menulis kitab Al-Muqaddimah yang mengupas masalah-masalah sosial manusia, Ibnu Khaldun juga menulis kitab Al-`Ibar (Sejarah Umum). Pada 780 H, Ibnu Khaldun sempat kembali ke Tunisia. Di tanah kelahirannya itu, ia sempat merevisi kitab Al’Ibar.

Empat tahun kemudian, ia hijrah ke Iskandaria (Mesir) untuk menghindari kekisruhan politik di Maghrib. Di Kairo, Ibnu Khaldun disambut para ulama dan penduduk. Ia lalu membentuk halaqah di Al-Azhar. Ia didaulat raja menjadi dosen ilmu Fikih Mazhab Maliki di MadrasahQamhiyah. Tak lama kemudian, dia diangkat menjadi ketua pengadilan kerajaan.

Ibnu Khaldun sempat mengundurkan diri dari pengadilan kerajaan, lantaran keluarganya mengalami kecelakaan. Raja lalu mengangkatnya lagi menjadi dosen di sejumlah madrasah. Setelah menunaikan ibadah haji, ia kembali menjadi ketua pengadilan dan kembali mengundurkan diri. Pada 803 H, dia bersama pasukan Sultan Faraj Barquq pergi ke Damaskus untuk mengusir Timur Lenk, penguasa Mogul.

Berkat diplomasinya yang luar biasa, Ibnu Khaldun malah bisa bertemu Timur Lenk yang dikenal sebagai penakluk yang disegani. Dia banyak berdiskusi dengan Timur. Ibnu Khaldun, akhirnya kembali ke Kairo dan kembali ditunjuk menjadi ketua pengadilan kerajaan. Ia tutup usia pada 25 Ramadhan 808 H di Kairo. Meski dia telah berpulang enam abad yang lalu, pemikiran dan karya-karyanya masih tetap dikaji dan digunakan hingga saat ini.

AL MUQADDIMAH, SEBUAH KARYA ABADI

Setelah mundur dari percaturan politik praktis, Ibnu Khaldun bersama keluarganya menyepi di Qal’at Ibn Salamah istana yang terletak di negeri Banu Tajin selama empat tahun. Selama masa kontemplasi itu, Ibnu Khaldun berhasil merampungkan sebuah karya monumental yang hingga kini masih tetap dibahas dan diperbincangkan.

`’Dalam pengunduran diri inilah saya merampungkan Al-Muqaddimah, sebuah karya yang seluruhnya orisinal dalam perencanaannya dan saya ramu dari hasil penelitian luas yang terbaik,” ungkap Ibnu Khaldun dalam biografinya yang berjudul Al-Ta’rif bi Ibn-Khaldun wa Rihlatuhu Gharban wa Sharqan.

Buah pikir Ibnu Khaldun itu begitu memukau. Tak heran, jika ahli sejarah Inggris, Arnold J Toynbee menganggap Al-Muqaddimah sebagi karya terbesar dalam jenisnya sepanjang sejarah.

Menurut Ahmad Syafii Ma’arif, salah satu tesis Ibnu Khaldun dalam Al-Muqaddimah yang sering dikutip adalah: `’Manusia bukanlah produk nenek moyangnya, tapi adalah produk kebiasaan-kebiasaan sosial.” Secara garis besar, Tarif Khalidi dalam bukunya Classical Arab Islam membagi Al-Muqaddimah menjadi tiga bagian utama .

Pertama, membicarakan histografi mengupas kesalahan-kesalahan para sejarawan Arab-Muslim.
Kedua, Al-Muqaddimah mengupas soal ilmu kultur. Bagi Ibnu Khaldun, ilmu tersebut merupakan dasar bagi pemahaman sejarah.
Ketiga, mengupas lembaga-lembaga dan ilmu-ilmu keislaman yang telah berkembang sampai dengan abad ke-14. Meski hanya sebagai pengantar dari buku utamanya yang berjudul Al-`Ibar, kenyataannya Al-Muqaddimah lebih termasyhur.

Pasalnya, seluruh bangunan teorinya tentang ilmu sosial, kebudayaan, dan sejarah termuat dalam kitab itu. Dalam buku itu Ibnu Khaldun diantara menyatakan bahwa kajian sejarah haruslah melalui pengujian-pengujian yang kritis.

`’Di tangan Ibnu Khaldun, sejarah menjadi sesuatu yang rasional, faktual dan bebas dari dongeng-dongeng,” papar Syafii Ma’arif. Bermodalkan pengalamannya yang malang-melintang di dunia politik pada masanya, Ibnu Khaldun mampu menulis Almuqaddimah dengan jernih. Dalam kitabnya itu, Ibnu Khaldun juga membahas peradaban manusia, hukum-hukum kemasyarakatan dan perubahan sosial.

Menurut Charles Issawi dalam An Arab Philosophy of History, lewat Al-Muqaddimah, Ibnu Khaldun adalah sarjana pertama yang menyatakan dengan jelas, sekaligus menerapkan prinsip-prinsip yang menjadi dasar sosiologi. Salah satu prinsip yang dikemukakan Ibnu Khaldun mengenai ilmu kemasyarakatan antara lain; `’Masyarakat tidak statis, bentuk-bentuk soisal berubah dan berkembang.”

Pemikiran Ibnu Khaldun telah memberi pengaruh yang besar terhadap para ilmuwan Barat. Jauh, sebelum Aguste Comte pemikir yang banyak menyumbang kepada tradisi keintelektualan positivisme Barat metode penelitian ilmu pernah dikemukakan pemikir Islam seperti Ibnu Khaldun (1332-1406).

Dalam metodeloginya, Ibnu Khaldun mengutamakan data empirik, verifikasi teoritis, pengujian hipotesis, dan metode pemerhatian. Semuanya merupakan dasar pokok penelitian keilmuan Barat dan dunia, saat ini. `’Ibnu Khaldun adalah sarjana pertama yang berusaha merumuskan hukum-hukum sosial,” papar Ilmuwan asal Jerman, Heinrich Simon.

KONSEP EKONOMI IBNU KHALDUN

Ibnu Khaldun juga banyak memberi kontribusi bagi pengembangan ilmu ekonomi. Tak heran, bila dia juga dijuluki sebagai `Bapak Ekonomi’.
Gagasan dan pemikiran tentang ekonomi Ibnu Khaldun telah mengilhami sejumlah ekonom terkemuka. Empat abad setelah Ibnu Khaldun berpulang, pemikirannya tentang ekonomi muncul kembali melalui Adam Smith serta David Ricardo.

Setelah itu, Karl Marx serta John Maynard Keynes juga banyak menyerap pemikiran Ibnu Khaldun. Salah satu pengaruh pemikiran Ibnu Khaldun yang diadopsi Karl Marx antara lain, mengenai dialektika yang saling mempengaruhi antara pemikiran dan dasar material. Selain itu, mengenai beberapa cara spesifik variabel ekonomi, khususnya dengan peran tenaga kerja dalam hubungan sosial.

Ibnu Khaldun begitu menghormati tenaga kerja sebagai salah satu dari dasar utama masyarakat dan diskusi tentang profit sebagai nilai yang didapat dari pekerjaan manusia. Pemikiran ekonomi Ibnu Khaldun menggabungkan hablum minallah dan hablum minnanas.

Ia mendefinisikan ekonomi secara sosial sebagai aktivitas ekonomi yang dipengaruhi oleh interaksi sosial dan sebaliknya mereka mempengaruhinya. Prespektif tersebut digunakan Ibn Khaldun dalam menganalisis nilai pekerja manusia, dalam arti mata pencaharian dan stratifikasi ekonomi sosial. Ibnu Khaldun juga berpendapat bahwa organisasi sosial adalah ‘sesuatu yang diperlukan’ bagi usaha manusia dan keinginannya untuk hidup dan bertahan hidup ‘dengan bantuan makanan’. Untuk mencapai tujuan ini kemampuan individu saja tidaklah cukup.

Dalam Al-Muqqadimah, Ibnu Khaldun juga memberikan keutamaan, bukan eksklusif, posisi faktor ekonomi dalam sejarah. Aktivitas intelektual dari manusia, seni dan ilmu pengetahuan, sikap dan perilaku moralnya, gaya hidup dan selera, standar kehidupan dan adat didefinisikan Ibnu Khaldun melalui derajat atau tingkatan produksi.